Based on the seed to seed spacing within the row for maize crop the reduction mechanism was developed. Generally, recommend spacing for maize is 220 to 260 mm. The speed of the punch wheel was estimated based on the predetermined seed to seed distance of 240 mm for maize crop. To obtained the optimum spacing between consecutive punches, the gear reduction was selected in three stages. The first reduction stage occurred between engine to PTO shaft, second stage between PTO shaft to reduction gear box output shaft and third stage reduction gear box output shaft to punch wheel shaft. Engine speed was maintained at 1000, 1500 and 2000 rpm corresponding PTO speeds were noted and average reduction ratios were calculated at two PTO lever positions as 4.46 and 3.07 respectively. Reduction ratios from PTO shaft to gear box output shaft were obtained as 1.85 and 1.84 at two lever positions. The reduction ratios from gear box output shaft to punch wheel were obtained as 2.41 and 2.42. overall reduction ration from engine speed to Punch wheel shaft at two lever positions were obtained as 19.96 and 13.67. Tractor forward speed was measured in three gear positions by increasing the engine speed from 800 to 2400 rpm. In three gear positions the forward speed increases by increasing the engine speed. In a particular PTO lever position (P1) with the combination of gear selection three different punch spacing were obtained as 16, 24 and 53 cm respectively. In each combination (P1G1, P1G2 and P1G3) even though forward speed increases, there is no significant effect on punch spacings were obtained as 10, 16 and 35 cm respectively. In a particular PTO lever position (P2) with the combination of gear selection three different punch spacing are obtained. In each combination (P2G1, P2G2 and P2G3) even though forward speed increases, there is no significant effect on punch spacing.

Field experiment was conducted during kharif seasons of 2017 and 2018 at College farm, Agricultural College, Bapatla, India to study the agrometeorological indices / weather health indices viz., Accumulated growing degree days (AGDD), Heliothermal units (HTU), Photothermal units (PTU) and Heat use efficiency (HUE) relation to phenology and grain yield of three rice varieties (BPT-5204, NLR-145 and NLR-34449) with different levels of nitrogen (60, 80, 100 and 120 kg N ha-1) under direct seeded conditions. The rice variety BPT-5204 took maximum calendar days to attain physiological maturity compared to other varieties. Results revealed that, from emergence to physiological maturity AGDD (2773°Cday), HTU (11763°Cdayhour), PTU (32822°Cdayhour) and HUE (2.32 kg ha-1 °C day-1) was found to be highest in the variety BPT-5204 followed by NLR-145 and NLR-34449 varieties. Similarly, the heat units required to attain different phenological stages differed in all varieties with different levels of nitrogen. Highest AGDD, HTU, PTU and HUE were attained with the application of 120 kg N ha-1 and least with 60 kg N ha-1. Correlation and regression equations indicated significant relationship between weather health indices and grain yields of three varieties. The exponential equations were proved to the best equations for predicting the grain yield in three cultivars. Relationships between accumulated GDD from emergence to maturity and grain yield production were significant, accounting for 99.8% variation in BPT-5204 (Y=-13081 + 6.844 GDD; R2=0.998*), accounting for 99.3% variation in NLR-145 (Y=-8849 + 5.455 GDD; R2 = 0.993**) and accounting for 97.1% variation in NLR-34449 (Y=-7241 + 5.040 GDD; R2 = 0.971**). Thus, all the equations developed are useful for predicting grain yield of rice with the help of GDD, HTU and PTU.

Two years trial was conducted to study the performance of different vegetables under poplar based agroforestry system in subtropics of Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir at Agroforestry Research Farm, Chatha of Sher-e-Kashmir University of agricultural sciences and technology of Jammu. Trial was conducted under 5 year’s old plantation of poplar, to find out the growth and yield of tomato, brinjal, okra in kharif. All the vegetables were grown in open as well as under shade of poplar trees with five treatments T1: RDF of NPK, T2: 50%N+50%N through FYM, T3: 100% N through FYM, T4: 50%N+50%N through VC, T5: 100% N through VC. Significant affect of shade and fertilizer treatments was recorded on the growth and yield of all the vegetables under poplar. The yields of all the crops were reduced under shade of poplar in comparison to open. Highest growth and yield were recorded in treatment T1 (Recommended dose of NPK).

An experiment was carried out in the Department of Horticulture, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India, during 2015-16 and 2016-17 to study the influence of integrated nutrient management on growth, yield and quality parameters of papaya (Carica papaya L.). For this plant of Sapna cultivar was planted on 20th March during both years of experimentation at a spacing of 2.0 x 2.0 m. There were eighteen treatments comprising Azotobacter, PSB and vermicompost with graded dose of RDF including one control, replicated thrice in randomized block design. All treatments were applied at the time of planting in the field. The data of both the years of experiment were analyzed which clearly shows that during both years of experimentation significantly lesser number of nodes and days taken to first flowering, fruit developmental period with reduced fruit drop and maximum fruit retention with higher fruit yield, fruit weight and volume were recorded in the plants which were fertilized with RDF 75% + Azotobacter 100 g + PSB 100 g + vermicompost 2 kg/plant, whereas uninoculated plants results in higher number of nodes to first flowering along with more days taken for the appearance of first flower, took maximum fruit developmental period, results maximum fruit drop percent and minimum fruit retention percent along with minimum yield of fruits which are lighter in weight and volume during both years of experimentation. As quality characters of fruits are concerned fruits having maximum pulp percent, total soluble solids (TSS) and total sugar contents and minimum peel percent, titratable acidity contents were recorded in fruits which were produced from the plants fertilized with RDF 75% + Azotobacter 100 g + PSB 100 g + vermicompost 2 kg/plant, whereas uninoculated plants results in minimum pulp percent, total soluble solids (TSS) and total sugar contents and maximum peel percent, higher titratable acidity contents during both years of experimentation.

Degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons by the means of microorganisms is a favourable approach over physical removal methods owing to their ubiquitous nature. Enhanced bioremediation, i.e., the use of a patented combination of microorganisms, surfactants, and emulsifiers, break the contaminant down into tiny pieces, which can then be surrounded by enzymes and quickly digested. In situ bioremediation techniques involving processes like biostimulation, bioaugmentation and intrinsic bioremediation do not require excavation of the contaminated soils, so is less expensive, create less dust, and cause less release of contaminants than ex situ techniques. Abiotic factors such as structure of the hydrocarbons, temperature, physical state of the pollutant, salinity and pressure and oxygen content are known to affect the rate of degradation. Also, many biotic factors viz., chemotactic attraction of microorganisms towards pollutants, production of biosurfactants, formation of biofilms have been affirmed to augment the process of degradation. Hydrocarbons interact with the soil matrix and the microorganisms present in the vicinity, determining the fate of the contaminant relative to its chemical nature and microbial degradative capabilities. Degradation can be monitored by measuring the changes occurred over time in concentration of the hydrocarbons and by the increase/decrease in the number of microorganisms present in the vicinity. This review presents an overview of techniques employed in treatment of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated sites by the means of bioremediation and the factors affecting it.

The rise in global temperature leading to heat stress conditions on plant is a significant concern in future. It will affect the average plant physiological process that results in declining yield and productivity. To study the effect of heat stress on physiological and yield traits of black gram, a pot culture experiment was conducted at the Agro Climate Research Centre of TNAU, Coimbatore during 2019-20. The experimental results revealed that the heat stress reduced the membrane stability index (MSI) of black gram plant from 78.19 percent to 70.52 percent when compared to ambient condition. Likewise, the chlorophyll content in the plants subjected to heat stress was reduced to 36.74 percent as against 41.52 percent recorded under ambient condition. The deterioration in the normal physiological process reduced the average yield under the elevated condition (Ambient+2 ?C) to 2.28 grams per plant as compared to 2.98 grams per plant in ambient condition.

Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp] is an important protein rich pulse crop produced globally, with high nutritional and economic value. Estimation of the genetic variation is key to any crop improvement program. The findings reported here would serve cowpea research and breeding programs including germplasm management, selection of appropriate genotypes to generate new breeding materials for cultivar improvement. These traits showed variability for biological yield per plant, plant height, seed yield per plant, days to maturity, pod/plant, pod length, peduncle length, days to 50 % flowering, seeds /pod, seed index, terminal leaf length, cluster/plant, no. of main branches, fresh pod weight, harvest index, terminal leaf width, no. of node on main stem, pod/cluster and no. of pods per peduncle. The traits with high magnitude of variability can be manipulates for its improvement. High heritability with high genetic advance was recorded for plant height followed by peduncle length, biological yield per plant, pod/plant, pod length, seed yield per plant, days to maturity, days to 50% heading, days to 50 % flowering, seeds /pod, seed index, no. of main branches, terminal leaf length, terminal leaf width, cluster/plant and fresh pod weight.

Droughts occur when there is not enough rain for a long period of time. During the study rainfall data of fifteen years from 2001 to 2015 based on standard weeks was analyzed for Lucknow district of India. The monthly maximum rainfall at different probability levels was calculated by using Gumbel’s Probability method. The daily rainfall data series is divided into annual, seasonal, monthly, and weekly average data series. During weekly average rainfall analysis, it was observed that maximum 15 times drought occurs in 49th week while minimum of 4th times is in case of 29th week. The maximum number of surplus weeks during the fifteen years’ time was 4 and the minimum numbers of drought weeks i.e. zero were found in the 32nd and 49th standard week of the year during fifteen years’ time. The maximum number of normal weeks during the 15 years period was 9 during in the 29th week, and the minimum numbers of drought weeks i.e. zero were found in the 2nd, 12th, 15th, 21st, 41th, 44th, 45th, 46th, 47th, 48th and 49th standard week. The percentage of normal, surplus and drought months are respectively 42.22%, 10.56%, and 47.22% out of total number of months for fifteen years duration. The percentage of drought, surplus and normal years are 6.37%, 20% and 73.34% respectively according to Standard Deviation (sd). The analysis has revealed erratic distribution of precipitation during Rabi season thereby preventing the farmers to go for Rabi crops. Therefore, the irrigation must be assured for sowing Rabi crops. The monthly maximum rainfall at different probability level was calculated by Gumbel’s Distribution method. From the drought analysis, it was observed that study area is drought prone at two stages; firstly, at the beginning of the season which can cause delay in transplantation and secondly, at the beginning of the grain ripening stage, which can drastically reduce the crop yield. The annual daily maximum rainfall received at any time ranged between 1539.60 mm (maximum) to 628.11 mm (minimum) indicating a very large range of fluctuation during the period of study.

Field experiments were conducted during kharif 2010 and 2011 on turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) variety BSR2 at Regional Research station, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Paiyur on alfisol soil with ten treatments. The experiment was laid out with graded levels of nitrogen (150 and 200 kg/ha), Phosphorus (60,75kg/ha) and potassium (108,150 and 180 kg/ha). The pooled results of two years indicated that the growth parameters like the plant height (68.10cm), number of leaves (8.40), leaf length (72.07cm), leaf breadth (18.41cm) and number of tillers (4.20) and the yield characters like weight of mother rhizome (176.80g), weight of primary rhizome (343.42g), weight of secondary rhizome (241.43g) ,weight of clump per plant (846.82g) and fresh rhizome yield (44.43t/ha) were the highest by the application of 200-75-180 kg NPK along with FYM (25t/ha) + Biofertilizer (Azospirillum & Phosphobacteria 10 kg each/ha). The optimum dose of fertilizer to increase the yield of turmeric is 200-75-180 kg NPK/ha whenever the inorganics alone are applied while it is 200-75-180 kg NPK/ha + FYM (25t/ha) + Biofertilizer (Azospirillum & Phosphobacteria 10 kg each/ha) whenever integrated nutrient management practice is adopted.

Foraging behaviour of Tetragonula iridipennis (Smith) on cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) flowers inside the polyhouse was evaluated to determine the effectiveness of using them as pollinators. The mode of foraging and foraging behaviour viz; foraging rate, foraging intensity and foraging speed of stingless bees was recorded during the peak flowering stage of the crop. The diurnal variations in colony activity viz; total number of returning (pollen and nectar) and outgoing foragers were counted separately for 5 minutes at the entrance of the bee colony. The observations were taken at hourly intervals from 0800-0900 h to 1600-1700 h. Temperature and the relative humidity inside the polyhouse was also recorded. Two modes of alighting were observed viz; side workers (78.00 %) and top workers (22.00 %). The highest foraging rate as 6.80 male flowers 5 min-1 was observed during 0800-0900 h, highest foraging intensity as 4.40 bees male flower-1 10 min-1 during 1000-1100 h and longest time spent by bee per male flower as 44.30 sec. during 1200-1300 h. The nectar and pollen collection peaks were during 1200-1400 h. There is a significant positive correlation between temperature and number of incoming foragers (r = 0.78) and a significant negative correlation between relative humidity and number of incoming foragers (r = -0.68).

Malnutrition continues to be highly prevalent in India. Persistent high levels of child under nutrition in India are the consequences of a complex interaction of basic underlying and immediate factors. While any single intervention cannot address such complexity of determinants, the package of services provided by Integrated Child Development Services Scheme (ICDS) is well-suited to addressing the immediate causes of under nutrition, immunization and improving the knowledge of women beneficiaries related to childcare and nutrition of children during early years of their life. As such this research was planned to study the intervention being provided by AWCs (Anganwadi Centers) to improve the knowledge level of women beneficiaries regarding immunization and malnutrition. And their role in improving such health conditions among young children. In this context, four blocks were purposively selected from district Budgam of Kashmir region. From these four blocks 60 AWCs were randomly selected through lottery method with 15 AWCs from each block. The data was collected through a structured interview schedule from these selected AWCs. (i.e., one AWW from each sample AWC). The results revealed that intervention is being provided through lectures or discussion during VHND (Village and Health Nutrition Day and NHED (Nutrition and Health Education Day) or during mealtime provided at the centre. However, these meetings are being conducted occasionally at Health centres or AWCs through health personnel or ASHA workers and also through frequent home visits for counseling and motivation. Although the AWCs has proved to be successful to large extent in immunization coverage and awareness regarding malnutrition but a gap is still there with only 85% immunization coverage and presence of malnourished children for which a well-defined intervention is needed to be focused in improving the knowledge of Kashmiri women regarding these issues.