The term "toad" tends to refer to the "True Toads".... which are members of the family Bufonidae, containing more than 300 species. One hundred specimens of Bufo regularis (67 males and 33 females) were collected between June 2006 and August 2006 in Awka metropolis of Anambra State of Nigeria and examined for helminth parasites or for non-protozoan gut and tissue parasites. Seventy one percent (71%) (48 males and 23 females) of the specimens were infected by five hundred and forty-three (543) parasitic helminthes made up of 475(89%) nematodes, 6(2%) pentastomids and 62(14%) trematodes. These seven species collected include Nematoda: Ascaridoid larva (12%), Rhabdias bufonis (30%), Camallanus sp. (10%), Amplicaecum africanum (31%), Ascaridoid (6%); Trematoda: Messocoelium monodi (14%); Pentastomida: Raillietiella sp. (6%). Amplicaecum africanum was most prevalent in males with 24% than in females 7%. Also Rhabdias bufonis was most prevalent in males with 19% than in females 11% and the differences were statistically significant. Prevalence also varied with length and weight. Male toads in the length classes of 11.0-11.9cm and 12.0-12.9cm had the highest prevalence of 100% while those in 7.0-7.9cm length class had the least prevalence of 60%. Females in the 10.0-10.9cm length class had the highest prevalence of 81.82% while those in 9.0-9.9cm length class had the least prevalence of 50% (P<0.05). Males in 101-120g weight class had the highest prevalence of 100% while those in the 61-80g weight class had the least prevalence of 63.64%. Females in 141-160g weight class had the highest prevalence of 100%while those in the weight classes of 41-60g, 61-80g and 81-100g had the least prevalence of 75% and the differences were statistically significant.(P<0.05). All the helminths exhibited site preferences except one nematode, Amplicaecum africanum, recovered from rectum, intestine and stomach of both male and female toads. Parasite abundance was variable from one toad size class to another. It appeared that there was a general tendency for the prevalences to increase with increase in size of the host.

Haemolymph is the medium that transports nutrients, hormones and immune effector molecules to provide the mosquitoes with immune response against invading filarial worms. In this study, haemolymph protein profiles of adult female Aedes togoi, before and after intrathoracic inoculation of Brugia malayi microfilariae or injection with saline solution, were analyzed. SDS-PAGE revealed that haemolymph protein profiles of both mosquitoes injected and inoculated with saline solution and microfilariae, respectively, were similar. At least 5 protein bands were induced after the injection. Two-dimensional electrophoresis analysis showed that approximately 150 protein spots were resolved in the haemolymph before and after saline injection. The molecular mass of these spots varied from 10-80 kDa with a pI of 3.1-10. Through comparison and analysis, 30 protein spots were expressed differentially during the immune challenge. Seven and seventeen spots were up-regulated and down-regulated proteins, respectively. Two spots were repressed and four appeared post saline injection. Information of Ae. togoi haemolymph proteins obtained in this study was is an initial step for further identification of differentially expressed proteins that might help in understanding immune response in the mosquito-parasite system.

A total of 101 P. falciparum positive patients were enrolled from urban population of Kolkata, India to determine the therapeutic efficacy of chloroquine as per 28 days follow-up schedule of WHO, 2003. All parasite strains were analyzed for P. falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) haplotypes using DNA sequencing methodology. The PCR corrected chloroquine resistant P. falciparum was very high (76.3%, 95% CI 0.642 – 0.832) of which early treatment failure was (10%), and late treatment failure was (66.3%). K76T mutation was found in all parasite strains irrespective of therapeutic outcomes. Both the Venezuelan (SVMNT) and Southeast Asian (CVIET) haplotypes were prevalent in the study population with predominance of South East Asian haplotype (87.1%). The present study showed that incidence of CQ resistant P. falciparum malaria in Kolkata was very high and well above the WHO recommended cut-off level for change of drug policy. Recently introduced Artimisinine Combination Therapy by the Government of India to treat all P. falciparum cases is an appropriate step.

In Ghana, urinary schistosomiasis was considered a public health problem in the rural communities only. Recent reports are pointing to the resurgence of this infection in urban and peri-urban settlements. In this study, the prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium infection presenting at Kumasi South Hospital (surrounded by Atonsu, Gyinyaase and Ahinsan communities) and Aninwa Medical Centre (surrounded by Boadi, Ayeduase, Emena, Appiadu and Kokoben) were investigated in retrospect to determine whether S. haematobium infection rate difference was consistent over time and also to compare the prevalent rates of the infection between these two community hospitals. The available records of patients referred for urinalysis between 2000 and 2009 were retrospectively reviewed. Prevalence of S. haematobium infection at Kumasi South Hospital (an urban poor community) was 40.2% whilst Aninwa Medical Centre (a peri-urban settlement) recorded 4.5%. The infection was higher among males (66.4%) than the females (33.6 %) at both hospitals and a general pattern of 3- year peaks of the infection was observed. Our findings have indicated that the urban poor communities around Kumasi South Hospital are seriously affected by S. haematobium infection as compared to Aninwaah Medical Centre. Economic, agricultural and recreational activities of these communities living around the banks of River Susan in addition to lack of good household water might account for the high risk of the infection in the urban poor communities in the catchment areas of the Kumasi South Hospital.